Ancient Sulawesi Teeth Push Back Timeline of Human Drug Use by Millennia

Archaeological analysis of prehistoric human remains on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi has uncovered the earliest known evidence of mind-altering substance consumption in human history. The findings reveal that prehistoric hunter-gatherers were actively utilizing plant-based psychoactive drugs tens of thousands of years earlier than mainstream archaeological records had previously indicated.

The specific substance identified at the center of the research is the betel nut, a fruit seed harvested from the areca palm tree. In contemporary global society, the betel nut stands as the fourth most widely consumed psychoactive substance worldwide, trailing only caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine in its overall prevalence and popularity.

Across large areas of Asia and the Pacific today, roughly one in every ten individuals engages in the customary practice of chewing betel nut. In modern settings, consumers typically prepare a mixture known as a quid, which consists of processed pieces of the areca nut combined with slaked lime, also known chemically as calcium hydroxide.

The inclusion of slaked lime is critical to achieving the desired effect in modern quids. When mixed with the nut, calcium hydroxide triggers a rapid chemical reaction that accelerates the absorption of arecoline, the plant's active psychoactive compound, into the bloodstream. This fast-acting process provides consumers with a mild sense of euphoria alongside heightened mental alertness.

For decades, the prevailing consensus within the archaeological community maintained that structured drug usage first emerged alongside early agriculture. Researchers long believed that psychoactive plant traditions originated roughly 13,000 years ago during the Neolithic Revolution, when nomadic groups began transitioning away from foraging to cultivate domesticated crops and establish permanent farming settlements.

As part of that historical agricultural shift, early farming populations in modern-day Israel began brewing beer from cultivated barley. In the case of betel nut chewing across Southeast Asia, previous archaeological records had only traced the tradition back roughly 4,000 years, reinforcing the assumption that mind-altering practices were products of settled societies.

However, the latest study, published in the peer-reviewed journal Science Advances, fundamentally overturns that historical timeline. The newly analyzed skeletal data demonstrates that ancient foraging communities in Indonesia were regularly sucking on whole betel nuts between 25,000 and 16,000 years ago, long before the development of organized farming systems.

Lead study author Adam Brumm, an archaeology professor at Griffith University's Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution, noted that this discovery represents the oldest known example of drug use by human beings. Brumm explained that this Paleolithic practice served as the ancestral precursor to the betel nut traditions that remain widespread in the region today.

The concrete physical evidence supporting this breakthrough stems from excavations conducted in 2017 inside Leang Bulu Bettue, a limestone cave. The archaeological site is situated in the rugged and mountainous Maros-Pangkep karst landscape located in the southern region of the island of Sulawesi.

During the excavation at Leang Bulu Bettue, archaeologists unearthed a rare fragment of an upper jawbone belonging to an adult preagricultural forager. Because human skeletal remains typically degrade rapidly in humid tropical environments such as Sulawesi, finding a well-preserved jawbone dating between 25,000 and 16,000 years ago represented a remarkably fortunate archaeological recovery.

An intensive analysis of three teeth still embedded in the jawbone revealed telling physical markers of chronic use. Two of the prehistoric teeth exhibited deep, distinctively rounded grooves, which the research team identified as the direct physical consequence of repeatedly holding and sucking on whole betel nuts over extended spans of time.

Corroborating evidence for the practice was documented at a second cave site named Leang Cappolombo, situated approximately 20.5 miles (33 kilometers) away. In a separate 2017 excavation at that location, another team of researchers discovered the skeletal remains of a second adult forager whose teeth displayed the identical rounded groove patterns.

Although Brumm’s research team was only able to examine the Leang Cappolombo teeth three years ago, the chronological data provided critical historical context. That individual lived between 7,600 and 6,300 years ago, demonstrating that the habit of consuming whole betel nuts persisted across many millennia within the island's ancient foraging populations.

The research team concluded that while sucking whole nuts delivered a less potent psychoactive punch than modern lime-mixed quids, ancient foragers initially utilized the seeds as a rudimentary pain reliever. However, reliance on the plant's neuroactive properties carried profound physical drawbacks that worsened the foragers' oral health over time.

According to Professor Brumm, the evidence suggests that ancient foragers were effectively trapped in a vicious cycle of chemical dependency and physical wear. While individuals sought out the betel nut to alleviate physical discomfort, the prolonged habit wore deep grooves into their teeth, likely generating new oral pain that encouraged continuous, long-term consumption.

In total, the Sulawesi discoveries indicate that early nomadic communities were experimenting with neuroactive plant properties far earlier than previously understood. Rather than emerging as a byproduct of settled agricultural life, the human relationship with mind-altering substances originated in the deep foraging past, accompanied by the enduring trade-offs of physical dependency and bodily harm.